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Analysis - Hoffman
Invisible Critique
Author: R. Wade Hoffmann
Instructor: Crystal Clark
Class: English 2281
White America has a long and rich history of denial of anything Black: humanity, intelligence,
freedoms, equality. The list goes on and on. Is it any wonder that African-American
literature would be any different? No less a personage than Thomas Jefferson simultaneously
denied the possibility of an African American creating literature while critiquing
the same work as being derivative and unimaginative, sublimating it to mindless repetition
rather than art (Gates, "Mister Jefferson..."). With this in mind, the study of African-American
literature must begin by stating that a tradition of African Americans creating literature
does exist, and that it is art. It seems obvious that it has been defined as much
by its denial as its creation. It is this denial that makes Henry Louis Gates, Jr.'s
claims in "The 'Blackness of Blackness': A Critique of the Sign of the Signifying
Monkey" relevant. Gates' work sets forth a theoretical method of studying black literature
in a way that exists outside of the academic critique that typically and traditionally
has been applied to nearly all other Western literature. Gates' theory of intertextuality,
revisionism, and signifyin(g) are easy enough for non-Blacks to recognize, as shown
by Nikki Giovanni's poem "Ego Tripping (there may be a reason why)" and its antecedent,
Langston Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers". As predicted by Gates' theory,
being outside of the African-American literary tradition, the full scope and scale
of how the tradition applies these concepts as self-criticism is not at first obvious.
The early writers in the African-American tradition had to overcome almost insurmountable
odds simply to become literate and create their work. Even when they had, their work
was questioned as legitimate because of their skin color and the oppressive racial
climate of the times in which they lived. The denial mentioned earlier of Jefferson
was regarding the work of Phillis Wheatley, the first African-American poet to be
published in America. As a young adult, she was forced to endure an oral examination
by 18 of the most powerful men in Boston at the time of the publishing of her work
just to prove she was, in fact, the writer of those works. So great was the doubt
in her abilities that these men agreed to sign an attestation stating that they did
believe she wrote these works (Gates, "Mister Jefferson..."). Even still, questions
lingered. This serves as a testament to the racism of the day and the strength of
spirit of the earliest contributors to the tradition that we now call African-American
literature, but it would not be the last test. Many more authors, writers, and speakers
within the tradition dealt with similar doubts of their abilities and the authorship
of their works simply because of their skin color.
Gates creates the signifying monkey paradigm and traces the act of signifyin' through
black mythology, following multiple black cultures in various geographic locations
(687). Using this analysis, he explicates the use of this concept in black culture
as a whole, quoting scholar and folklorist Roger D. Abrahams to support his claims,
and then narrows the concept to his specific purpose of critiquing black literature
(689). Taking this perspective, it is fairly easy to apply these principles to some
of the creative expressions of the slaves, and seems to also tie in well with Gates
choice of critical review, Mumbo Jumbo, a phrase that roughly translates to gibberish
(703). The work songs, spirituals, and folk tales composed by the slaves may have
seemed like gibberish to the slaveholders, but it would seem to stand to reason that
this was by design. Perhaps taking advantage of the fact that the Whites perceived
slaves as ignorant, songs and stories that seemed like nonsense would be ignored by
the masters but could be used to convey covert messages to other slaves in the same
group or between larger groups of slaves. They could conceivably convey messages of
hope, subversive sabotage, or even plans for rebellion. Another possible facet of
signifyin' is to learn to accept insults in a lighthearted way so that the insults
of the Whites could be handled in a way that was not as damaging to the black spirit
and ego. Thus signifyin' would have be an important part of African-American culture
from the early colonial period when slavery began in this country. This being the
case, it would stand to reason that signifyin' would be as ingrained and natural to
any African-American writer as language itself.
Another reason for denial of any literary work by an African American for the time
period from the colonial days up until at least the Civil War, was that writing and
expression in the same form as mainstream white culture would serve as proof of the
intellectual abilities of the race being enslaved. The view of Blacks as ignorant,
soulless brutes was part of the culture that allowed the Christian white majority
to continue the enslavement. Even after the end of slavery, Southern Whites strove
to keep many Blacks ignorant and illiterate in order to perpetuate their concepts
of white superiority. As a result, any literary achievement made by a person of color,
such as expanding or adapting existing literary models in some new way, would be dismissed
by racist white scholars as non-literature or non-art. The constant comparison to
literature in the European tradition is what led, at least in part, to the denial
of a black literary tradition. Langston Hughes could have easily been relegated to
this category if he had not forced critics to find cultural parallels to the rhythms
of his poetry in Black music (Turner 143). Simply because white America lacked acceptance
of Black literature did not stop it from being created, and the study of the tradition
has taken place within the tradition.
One final important component of Gates theory is how the concepts he discusses combine
in order to form a self-criticism within the Black literary tradition. Gates asserts
that Black writers have read, studied, and been influenced by other Black authors
within the tradition, and further, actually critique one another's work as part of
their own literature, what Gates refers to as a "tertiary formal revision ... revise[ing]
at least two antecedent texts, often taken from different generations or periods within
the tradition" ("Blackness..." 692). This point is the fulcrum of Gates' theory, and
refutes the final important denial of a cohesive Black literary aesthetic by asserting
that there is a scholarly study of the tradition, although it is not practiced in
the fashion that European and other Western traditions study themselves.
The question still remains both inside and outside the literary community of whether
Gates' claims are true, accurate, and specific to the African-American literary tradition.
Without a study of the Black literary tradition itself, the claims are not at all
obvious. If one simply acknowledges that a Black literary tradition exists, the intertextuality,
revisionism, and even the signifyin' seem to be similar or identical to any other
Western literature. A study of Gates' work by one of his peers within the sphere of
the African-American scholarly criticism, Professor Kenneth Warren, currently teaching
at the University of Chicago, does not seem to completely agree with Gates. Warren
argues in "The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism," that
Gates is "convinced of the reality of black difference but too steeped in deconstructive
thought to say so plainly" (Warren 224), which would seem to indicate that Gates might
be trying too hard to differentiate Black literature from any other tradition.
Another of Gates' peers, Dr. Samuel B. Olorounto, associate professor of English and
comparative literature at New River Community College, concurs with Warren. Despite
the fact that Olorounto uses Gates theory as the basis for his work, he concedes that
"whether Gates' premises provide a solid foundation on which to build a comprehensive
theory of literary criticism requires further investigation" (5), meaning that the
theory is still untested or not fully accepted within the critical literary community.
While pointing out certain flaws or holes in the argument, Warren still praises Gates'
work for writing "an intriguing counter argument to the claim that theory is somehow
foreign to the black tradition: to theorize is to do nothing that black writers have
not done for centuries" (Warren 225). He continues and admits, "even if one does not
assent fully to this argument, Gates' demonstrated ability to suggest relations among
black-authored fictions may help lay to rest the tiresome charges that attention to
figurative language and literary form is inherently at odds with African-American
literary practice" (226). It would seem by these statements that Warren is not entirely
convinced Gates' theory is accurate, but admits that Gates' paper does at least serve
a purpose in the academic community. By drawing attention to the concept of signifyin',
along with defining the cultural and historical connections to Africa, Gates has contributed
to a greater understanding of a Black literary aesthetic.
All of the information presented by Gates seems to indicate that regardless of whether
or not signifyin' is unique and specific to Black literature, the concept can be used
to explore the tradition in a new way. For instance, Olorounto cites several other
literary scholars and theories, but ultimately adopts Gates' method in his critiques
(4). Even without a scholarly or critical background, the intertextuality between
certain works and their antecedents are clearly apparent. Gates' theory can easily
be used to view two works within the tradition that exhibit traits suggested by the
method.
Nikki Giovanni's poem "Ego Tripping (there may be a reason why)" is a moving and powerful
poem in its own right: The imagery creates an impression of Black beauty, strength,
and wisdom that is all too often overlooked, ignored, or unacknowledged in American
culture; in this way, Giovanni's poem celebrates and reminds the reader of the tremendous
accomplishments and contributions that Africa and African persons have made to human
history. Specifically, the most primal and basic fact that is widely accepted is that
human history started in Africa, which would imply that we are all African at some
point in our past. Giovanni also claims Noah as an African son and Jesus as having
ties to or shared origins in Africa as well, which does seem to be supported by Biblical
texts. The major accomplishments of African culture listed are: the designing of the
pyramids – obviously one of the great wonders of the world; the birth of Nefertiti
– celebrated for her beauty, and believed to have contributed to the formation of
monotheism ("Nefertiti"); and the rise of Hannibal – who was celebrated as one of
history's greatest military minds ("Hannibal Barca"). Finally, the richness of the
land in gems and precious metals is mentioned, serving to prove that Africa is inherently
wealthy in terms of resources. All of these facts stand in stark opposition to many
of the common stereotypes and misconceptions of the African continent as a whole and
the African people in general.
This, however, does not tell the whole story of Giovanni's poem. If one assumes an
antecedent intertext as Langston Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," Giovanni's
work takes on new meanings and creates new symbols. Applying Gates' methodology, there
are numerous examples of both pastiche and parody: pastiche being defined as imitation
of form or character in a flattering or complimentary way, whereas parody is repetition
and reversal in a mocking or ironic way.
The following are given as examples of pastiche from Giovanni to her antecedent:
Giovanni
- Duplication of form, repeating "I"
- Many embodiments using "I" (African, women)
- "born in the congo" (1)
- "walked to the fertile crescent" (2)
- Duplication of form with use of "My"
- "flows ever on" (26) like rivers flow
- "gold was laid" (45)
Hughes
- Repetition of "I" in of each line
- Embodiment of negroes in "I"
- "built my hut near the Congo" (5)
- "bathed in the Euphrates" (4)
- "turn all golden in the sunset" (8)
The similarities are more than chance; they are a purposeful use of the power of Hughes'
poem. Giovanni simultaneously pays homage to Hughes while borrowing his symbolism
and his form of embodiment with the first person voice speaking for all of African
culture. It would also seem to pull in elements of the American experience, which
is mentioned in Hughes's poem, but not in Giovanni's, thus giving a subtle focus to
the poem that would not be present without Hughes' mention of Lincoln. Using this
method, Giovanni's work benefits tremendously and the reader can gain a new perspective
of both works.
The following are some of Giovanni's parodies of Hughes' work:
Giovanni
- "designed a pyramid" (4)
- "created the nile" (14)
- "I am a beautiful woman" (15)
Hughes
- "and raised the pyramids" (6)
- "looked upon the Nile" (6)
Given that designing is more intricate and complicated that raising or building, Giovanni
claims for all of Africa an expanded and heightened accomplishment of not only building,
but also the designing the pyramids. The Nile River is mentioned in both, but Giovanni
extends her claim far beyond that of Hughes' and pronounces that her tears created
it (14). Obviously an act much grander than simply looking, it is an act of god-like
power. It would also seem to hint at the life-giving parallels between a woman giving
birth to a child, and a river providing fresh water and giving birth to a community.
Nothing denotes the gender of the speaker in Hughes poem, but using the proclamation
"I am beautiful woman" (15), Giovanni pulls all the symbols together to create a powerful
female who is both graceful and bold, and yet still feminine and beautiful. Lacking
the prior knowledge of Hughes's poem reduces the scope and scale of Giovanni's work.
Giovanni's work critiques Hughes's poem, making use of his original form and several
of the powerful themes – simultaneously repeating, reversing, and expanding them.
This is very much in line with what Gates' theory states. Giovanni's work reaches
back through time to speak to Hughes's work, borrowing his robust and compelling symbols,
but changing them into her own unique and dynamic massage of the beauty and strength
of African-American femininity. While both works romanticize the shared African heritage
of the authors, Giovanni's clearly takes that a step further to celebrate the beauty
and uniqueness of African cultural contributions to humanity throughout history in
a way that is, as the title states, justifiably egotistical.
Once the fact that a tradition exists is established, a study of any of the works
within the Black literary tradition still seems possible without additional study,
but the initial interpretations would scarcely be considered complete without some
basic understanding of the African heritage inherent in African-American literature.
It is abundantly clear that the richness of the tradition is only fully appreciated
when viewed as a collection of works building upon one another. Before reading Hughes's
poem, Giovanni's is still a beautiful and moving piece; with the prior knowledge of
Hughes, it is all the more vibrant and powerful. Apart from the defining the past
suppression of many African-American literary works and the denial of a tradition,
Gates' theory and method is worthy of praise and additional study. In light of this,
the question of whether the concepts are unique to African-American literature is
somewhat irrelevant. Perhaps his methods would prove to be useful in other applications
for other literary traditions as well, but nevertheless, Gates himself has contributed
to the African-American literary tradition by expanding the understanding of it both
inside and outside of the tradition.
Works Cited
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. "Mister Jefferson and the Trials of Phillis Wheatley." www.Neh.Gov.
National Endowment for the Humanities, n.d. Web. 23 July 2014.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. "The 'Blackness of Blackness': A Critique of the Sign of the
Signifying Monkey." Critical Inquiry 9: 685-723. Web. 5 Jul. 2014.
Giovanni, Nikki. "Ego Tripping (there may be a reason why)." Nikki Giovanni: Multimedia:
Ego Tripping (there may be a reason why). Nikki Giovanni, 1 Jan. 2000. Web. 8 July
2014. "Hannibal Barca." Bio. A&E Television Networks, 2014. Web. 31 July 2014.
Hughes, Langston. "The Negro Speaks of Rivers." Poetry Foundation. Poetry Foundation,
1 Jan. 2014. Web. 11 July 2014. "Nefertiti." Bio. A&E Television Networks, 2014. Web.
31 July 2014.
Olorounto, Samuel B. "Studying African-American Literature in Its Global Context."
Studying African-American Literature in Its Global Context. VCCA Journal, 1 June 1992.
Web. 11 July 2014.
Turner, Darwin T. "Introductory Remarks about the Black Literary Tradition in the
United States of America." St. Louis University, n.d. Web. 11 July 2014.
Warren, Kenneth. "The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism
(Book)." Modern Philology 88.2 (1990): 224-226. Academic Search Complete. Web. 11
July 2014.